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But academic freedom has always been contested terrain - even in academic systems with strong historical traditions. Academic freedom was effectively obliterated in Nazi Germany despite the fact that its modern ideal was a German invention. Not only were direct restrictions placed on what could be taught in German universities during the Third Reich, but tenured professors who did not conform to the new ideology as well as professors who were Jewish or known to be politically dissident were fired. Few voices were raised in protest in Germany against these developments, and both the German professors' organizations and the student unions supported the Nazi suppression of academic freedom. In many cases, the universities themselves implemented the changes. During the 1950s Cold War-era anticonmiunist hysteria in the United States, academic freedom was challenged by govern­mental authorities seeking to rid the universities of alleged Communists. In some cases, such as in public universities in California and New York, a number of professors were forced from their positions by state regulations. In others, investigations "exposed" leftist professors, leading to firings or forced resignations: Some universities protected their faculty members in-the name, of academic freedom, while others gave in to outside pressure and fired professors. While only a few faculty were actually fired during this period, academic freedom was imperiled in an atmosphere of repression and many academics feared dismissal. These examples show that even in countries with strong academic traditions and commitmeants to academic freedom universities can suffer serious consequences.